Seven- and thirty-day mortality in digoxin poisoning: Results from the DIGITOX study.

BACKGROUND: Digoxin poisonings are relatively common and potentially fatal, requiring immediate therapeutic intervention, with special attention to the patient's hemodynamic status and the presence of electrocardiographic and electrolytic disturbances. OBJECTIVE: To identify factors associated with seven-day and thirty-day mortality in digoxin poisoning. DESIGN, SETTINGS AND PARTICIPANTS: A retrospective, observational, multicenter study was conducted across 15 Hospital Emergency Departments (HED) in Spain. All patients over 18 years of age who presented to participating HEDs from 2015 to 2021 were included. The inclusion criteria encompassed individuals meeting the criteria for digoxin poisoning, whether acute or chronic. OUTCOMES MEASURE AND ANALYSIS: To identify independent factors associated with 7-day and 30-day mortality, a multivariate analysis was conducted. This analysis included variables of clinical significance, as well as those exhibiting a trend (p < 0.1) or significance in the bivariate analysis. MAIN FINDINGS: A total of 658 cases of digoxin poisoning were identified. Mortality rates were 4.5% (30 patients) at seven days and 11.1% (73 patients) at thirty days. Regarding 7-day mortality, the mean age of deceased patients was comparable to survivors (84.7 (8.9) vs 83.9 (7.9) years; p = ns). The multivariate analysis revealed that factors independently associated with 7-day mortality encompassed the extent of dependence assessed by the Barthel Index (BI 60-89 OR 0.28; 95% CI 0.10-0.77; p = 0.014 and BI>90 OR 0.22; 95% CI 0.08-0.63; p = 0.005), the identification of ventricular arrhythmias (OR 1.34; 95% CI 1.34-25.21; p = 0.019), and the presence of circulatory (OR 2.84; 95% CI 1.19-6.27; p = 0.019) and neurological manifestations (OR 2.67; 95% CI 1.13-6.27; p = 0.025). Factors independently associated with 30-day mortality encompassed extent of dependence (BI 60-89 OR 0.37; 95% CI 0.20-0.71; p = 0.003 and BI>90 OR 0.18; 95% CI 0.09-0.39; p < 0.001) and the identification of circulatory (OR 2.13; 95% CI 1.10-4.15; p = 0.025) and neurological manifestations (OR 2.39; 95% CI 1.25-3.89; p = 0.006). CONCLUSIONS: The study identifies the degree of dependency assessed by the Barthel Index and the presence of cardiovascular and neurological symptoms as independent predictors of both 7-day and 30-day mortality. Additionally, the detection of ventricular arrhythmia is also an independent factor for 7-day mortality.

Characteristics of digoxin toxicity attended in Spanish emergency departments according to type of poisoning and administration of digoxin antibodies: the DIGITOX study. / Características de las intoxicaciones por digoxina atendidas en diversos servicios de urgencias españoles en función del tipo de intoxicación y de la administración de anticuerpos antidigoxina: estudio DIGITOX.

OBJECTIVES: Digoxin toxicity accounts for a small percentage of poisonings attended by emergency departments. This study aimed to describe differences between acute and chronic digoxin toxicity and assess the use of digoxin-specific antibody fragments (digoxin-Fab) as an antidote. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Retrospective, observational, multicenter study in 15 hospital emergency departments in 8 Spanish autonomous communities in 7 years. We collected patient, clinical and treatment variables, and discharge destination. Patients were classified according to whether toxicity was acute or chronic and whether digoxin-Fab was administered or not. RESULTS: Twenty-seven acute and 631 chronic digoxin poisonings were attended. The mean (SD) patient age was 83.9 (7.9) years, and 76.9% were women. Patients with acute toxicity were younger (80.0 [12] years) than those with chronic toxicity (84.1 [7.7] years) (P .038), and accidental poisoning was less common (in 85.2% vs 100% in chronic toxicity; P .001). Cases of acute toxicity were also more serious (Poison Severity Score (29.6% vs 12.5% in chronic toxicity; P .001). Thirty-four patients were treated with digoxin-Fab (5.4%). These patients were younger (78.7 [11.5] years vs 84.2 (7.6) years), their toxicity was more often acute (in 20.6% vs 3.2% in chronic toxicity), more had attempted suicide (8.8% vs 0.2% with chronic toxicity), and more had severe symptoms (50% vs 11.2%) (P .001, all comparisons). Hospital admission was required for 76.1%. Overall, mortality was 11.4%. CONCLUSION: Chronic toxicity accounts for most digoxin poisoning cases, and most patients are women. Acute toxicity is more serious. Patients who required digoxin-Fab have more severe poisoning. Such patients usually have acute toxicity, and attempted suicide is more often the reason for the emergency.

OBJETIVO: Las intoxicaciones por digoxina representan un pequeño porcentaje de las intoxicaciones atendidas en urgencias. El objetivo de este estudio fue describir las diferencias entre intoxicaciones agudas y crónicas y evaluar la administración de su antídoto específico: los anticuerpos antidigoxina (AcAD). METODO: Estudio retrospectivo, observacional y multicéntrico en 15 servicios de urgencias hospitalarios de 8 comunidades autónomas durante 7 años. Se recogieron datos de filiación, clínica, tratamiento y destino al alta. Los pacientes se dividieron según era la intoxicación aguda o crónica y según recibían o no AcAD. RESULTADOS: Se recogieron 27 intoxicaciones agudas y 631 crónicas. La edad media fue de 83,9 (7,9) años, y el 76,9% eran mujeres. Los pacientes con intoxicación aguda tenían menor edad media (80,0 (12) vs 84,1 (7,7) años; p 0,038), y porcentaje de causa accidental (85,2% vs 100%; p 0,001) y mayor gravedad en la escala Poison Severity Score (29,6% vs 12,5%; p 0,001). Treinta y cuatro pacientes recibieron AcAD (5,4%) y constituyen un grupo de menor edad [78,7 (11,5) vs 84,2 (7,6); p 0,001], con mayor porcentaje de intoxicaciones agudas (20,6% vs 3,2%), intencionalidad suicida (8,8% vs 0,2%) y gravedad (50% vs 11,2%, p 0,001 en todas las comparaciones). El 76,1% precisó ingreso. La mortalidad fue del 11,4%. CONCLUSIONES: Las intoxicaciones por digoxina suelen ser crónicas y predominan en mujeres. Las intoxicaciones agudas son de mayor gravedad. Los pacientes que precisaron administración de AcAD tenían intoxicaciones más graves y mayor porcentaje de intoxicaciones agudas y con intencionalidad suicida.

Diseño de una interfaz gráfica orientada a la simulación de un fermentador / Design of a graphical interface oriented to the simulation of a fermenter

RESUMEN El uso de fermentadores es común en diversos procesos biotecnológicos. Actualmente, un fermentador o biorreactor tiene la capacidad de monitorear variables físicas y químicas las cuales son mostradas al operador por medio de una pantalla. Aunado a los materiales de construcción de un biorreactor, hoy en día su adquisición es costosa e inaccesible para fines educativos y de investigación. Para abordar esta problemática, se diseñó y desarrolló la interfaz Fermenta V1.0. orientada a la simulación de un bioproceso realizado por un fermentador, para realizarla se utilizó una pantalla táctil Nextion y Arduino UNO; para su programación, se implementaron los entornos de desarrollo integrados apropiados. La interfaz fue capaz de emular diferentes dispositivos electrónicos como sensores, válvulas solenoides, bombas peristálticas, iluminación y agitación. En esta primera etapa, se establece el punto de partida para facilitar el acoplamiento de la interfaz Fermenta V1.0 con diversos sensores orientados al monitoreo de un fermentador. Con la incorporación de los dispositivos electrónicos a la interfaz, se podrá adecuar al sistema (interfaz-sensores) a un proceso biotecnológico en donde se requiera el uso de un fermentador y la necesidad de monitorear temperatura, oxígeno disuelto, pH, CO2, iluminación, agitación.

ABSTRACT The use of fermenters is common in various biotechnological processes. Currently, a fermenter or bioreactor can monitor physical and chemical variables which are displayed to the operator through a screen. In addition to the construction materials of a bioreactor, nowadays its acquisition is expensive and inaccessible for educational and research purposes. To address this problem, the Fermenta V1.0 interface was designed and developed to simulate a bioprocess performed by a fermenter, using a Nextion touch screen and Arduino UNO; for its programming, the appropriate integrated development environments were implemented. The interface was able to emulate different electronic devices such as sensors, solenoid valves, peristaltic pumps, lighting, and agitation. In this first stage, the starting point is established to facilitate the coupling of the Fermenta V1.0 interface with various sensors oriented to the monitoring of a fermenter. With the incorporation of the electronic devices to the interface, it will be possible to adapt the system (interface-sensors) to a biotechnological process where the use of a fermenter is required and the need to monitor temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, CO2, lighting, agitation.

The prognosis of patients hospitalized with a first episode of heart failure, validation of two scores: PREDICE and AHEAD.

PURPOSE: Heart failure (HF) is a chronic, frequent and disabling condition but with a modifiable course and a large potential for improving. The aim of this study was to validate the two available clinical prediction rules for mortality at one year in patients with primo-hospitalization for decompensated HF: PREDICE and AHEAD. The secondary aim was to evaluate in our setting the changes in the clinical pattern of HF in the last decade in patients hospitalized for a first episode of the disease. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A prospective multicenter cohort study, which included 180 patients hospitalized with "de novo" HF was conducted to validate the PREDICE score. Calibration and discrimination measurements were calculated for the PREDICE model and the PREDICE score (using the validation cohort of the PREDICE) and the AHEAD score (using both the development and the validation cohort of the PREDICE). RESULTS: For the PREDICE models, the area under the curve (AUC) was 0.68 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.57-0.79) and the calibration slope 0.65 (95% CI: 0.21-1.20). For the PREDICE score AUC was 0.59 (95% CI: 0.47-0.71) and slope 0.42 (95% CI: -0.20-1.17). For the AHEAD score the AUC was 0.68 (95% CI: 0.62-0.73) and slope 1.38 (95% CI: 0.62-0.73) when used the development cohort of PREDICE and the AUC was 0.58 (95% CI: 0.49-0.67), and slope 0.68 (95% CI: -0.06 to 1.47) when used its validation cohort. CONCLUSION: The present study shows that the two risk scores available for patients with primo-hospitalization for decompensated HF (PREDICE and AHEAD) are not currently valid for predicting mortality at one-year. In our setting the clinical spectrum of hospitalized patients with new-onset HF has been modified over time. The study underscores the need to validate the prognostic models before clinical implementation.

Utility intervention programs in the evolutional control of patients with heart failure / Utilidad de los programas de intervención en el control evolutivo de los pacientes con insuficiencia cardiaca.

Acute heart failure (HF) is a prevalent disease with important socio-economic repercussions. Due to the aging of population, these values will increase in the coming years, so it may be useful to the implementation of intervention programs in these patients to decrease morbidity and mortality. A quasi-experimental prospective study (n = 262) of patients admitted at the Internal Medicine Department of the Hospital Clínico Universitario Lozano Blesa, in Zaragoza, Spain, diagnosed of HF between November 2013 and October 2014 (both dates inclusive) (n = 108) followed up for 1 year was performed. Within this group, a subgroup with an intensive intervention (n = 30) was performed. The data were compared with a historical cohort of patients admitted to the same department during the same time in the previous year (from November 2012 to October 2013) (n = 154). Statistically significant differences between groups attending to the therapeutical adherence to clinical guidelines (p < 0.011) were observed. Considering the intensive intervention subgroup, statistically significant differences were observed in the rate of exitus (p < 0.032) and survival (log rank <0.030) compared to the control group. The close monitoring of patients with HF improves adherence, reduces mortality and improves survival. This May result in a decline in the use of health resources, which entails significant socio-economic benefits.

Acerca de las oportunidades de mejora en el manejo de la sepsis grave y el shock séptico en urgencias / Management of severe sepsis and septic shock in a tertiary care urban hospital emergency department: opportunities for improvement

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Melatonin's role in preventing toxin-related and sepsis-mediated hepatic damage: A review.

The liver is a central organ in detoxifying molecules and would otherwise cause molecular damage throughout the organism. Numerous toxic agents including aflatoxin, heavy metals, nicotine, carbon tetrachloride, thioacetamide, and toxins derived during septic processes, generate reactive oxygen species followed by molecular damage to lipids, proteins and DNA, which culminates in hepatic cell death. As a result, the identification of protective agents capable of ameliorating the damage at the cellular level is an urgent need. Melatonin is a powerful endogenous antioxidant produced by the pineal gland and a variety of other organs and many studies confirm its benefits against oxidative stress including lipid peroxidation, protein mutilation and molecular degeneration in various organs, including the liver. Recent studies confirm the benefits of melatonin in reducing the cellular damage generated as a result of the metabolism of toxic agents. These protective effects are apparent when melatonin is given as a sole therapy or in conjunction with other potentially protective agents. This review summarizes the published reports that document melatonin's ability to protect hepatocytes from molecular damage due to a wide variety of substances (aflatoxin, heavy metals, nicotine, carbon tetrachloride, chemotherapeutics, and endotoxins involved in the septic process), and explains the potential mechanisms by which melatonin provides these benefits. Melatonin is an endogenously-produced molecule which has a very high safety profile that should find utility as a protective molecule against a host of agents that are known to cause molecular mutilation at the level of the liver.

Cystatin C-based CKD-EPI equations and N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide for predicting outcomes in acutely decompensated heart failure.

BACKGROUND: In patients with acute decompensated heart failure (ADHF), both natriuretic peptides and renal impairment predict adverse outcomes. Our aim was to evaluate the complementary prognosis role of N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) and the newly developed Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) equations based on cystatin C (CysC) for glomerular filtration rate (GFR) estimation in ADHF patients. HYPOTHESIS: Renal impairment assessed by CysC-based CKD-EPI equations and natriuretic peptides have complementary prognostic value in ADHF patients. METHODS: The study included 613 consecutive patients presenting with ADHF. At admission, plasma levels of NT-proBNP and CysC were determined. The GFR was estimated using CysC-based CKD-EPI equations. The primary endpoint was death from any cause and heart failure readmission. RESULTS: During the median follow-up of 365 days (interquartile range, 227-441 days), 323 patients (0.65 %patient-year) died or were readmitted for heart failure. After multivariate adjustment, estimated GFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m(2) and NT-proBNP >3251 pg/mL were independent predictors of adverse outcomes (P < 0.01). The combination of GFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m(2) and NT-proBNP >3251 pg/mL was associated with the highest risk of adverse outcomes. Furthermore, reclassification analyses demonstrated that use of both NT-proBNP and CysC-based CKD-EPI equations resulted in improving the accuracy for adverse outcomes prediction. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with ADHF, the combination of NT-proBNP with estimated GFR using CysC-based CKD-EPI equations better predicts outcomes than either parameter alone and adds valuable complementary prognosis information to other established risk factors.

Comentarios acerca del estudio PROTESU / Comment on the PROTESU study

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Comparison of risk prediction with the CKD-EPI and MDRD equations in acute decompensated heart failure.

BACKGROUND: Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) equations estimate glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) more accurately than the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) equation. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether CKD-EPI equations based on serum creatinine and/or cystatin C (CysC) predict risk for adverse outcomes more accurately than the MDRD equation in a hospitalized cohort of patients with acute decompensated heart failure (ADHF). METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 526 subjects with ADHF were studied. Blood was collected within 48 hours from admission. eGFR was calculated with the use of MDRD and CKD-EPI equations. The occurrences of mortality and heart failure (HF) hospitalization were recorded. Over the study period (median 365 days [interquartile range 238-370]), 305 patients (58%) died or were rehospitalized for HF. Areas under the receiver operator characteristic curves for CKD-EPI CysC and CKD-EPI creatinine-CysC equations were significantly higher than that for the MDRD equation, especially in patients with >60 mL min(-1) 1.73 m(-2). After multivariate adjustment, all eGFR equations were independent predictors of adverse outcomes (P < .001). However, only CKD-EPI CysC and CKD-EPI creatinine-CysC equations were associated with significant improvement in reclassification analyses (net reclassification improvements 10.8% and 12.5%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: In patients with ADHF, CysC-based CKD-EPI equations were superior to the MDRD equation for predicting mortality and/or HF hospitalization especially in patients with >60 mL min(-1) 1.73 m(-2), and both CKD-EPI equations improved clinical risk stratification.

Prognostic value of serum cystatin C and N-terminal pro b-type natriuretic peptide in patients with acute heart failure.

BACKGROUND: Cystatin C (CysC) is a good prognostic marker in heart failure. However, there is not much information of CysC combined with other biomarkers in acute heart failure (AHF). AIM: To assess prognostic value of CysC and N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) in patients hospitalized for AHF with no apparent deterioration of renal function. DESIGN: Prospective, multicenter, observational study. METHODS: CysC and NTpro-BNP were measured in patients consecutively admitted with a diagnosis of AHF. Patients with, NTpro-BNP concentration above 900 pg/mL and serum creatinine below 1.3mg/dL, were included for statistical analysis. End-point of the study was all-cause mortality during a 12-month follow-up. RESULTS: 526 patients with AHF and NTpro-BNP concentration above 900 pg/mL were included in the study. From this group, 367 patients (69.8%) had serum creatinine below 1.3mg/dL. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were used to determine the best cut-off value for CysC. Patients with a concentration of CsyC above 1.25mg/dL had a 37.8% mortality rate, vs. 13.6% for those below cut-off (p<0.001). After Cox proportional hazard model, age, CysC, low total cholesterol and HF with preserved ejection fraction remained significantly associated with all-cause mortality during one-year follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: In AHF and normal or slightly impaired renal function, performance of CysC may be superior to NT-proBNP. Hence, CysC may be the preferred biomarker in the assessment of patients with AHF and slightly impaired renal function.

La cistatina C: una proteína para la insuficiencia cardíaca / Cystatin C: A protein for heart failure

La cistatina C es una proteína con actividad antiproteásica que se ha utilizado para la estimación de la función renal. Más allá de esta propiedad, aporta una información pronóstica en diferentes aspectos de la enfermedad cardiovascular. Se revisan los datos que avalan su utilidad como factor pronóstico cardiovascular en sujetos sanos de edad avanzada, hipertensos e insuficientes cardíacos. Se ha postulado que puede ser un marcador precoz de remodelado cardíaco, probablemente por hallarse involucrada en la patogenia de este, como un factor antiproteásico local en el miocardio. Su papel en la fisiopatología y clínica cardiovascular está por determinarse (AU)

Cystatin C (CysC) is an antiprotease useful for measuring kidney function. Beyond such property, it carries significant prognostic information in several fields of cardiovascular diseases. We review data that support CysC as a prognostic factor in cardiovascular diseases among healthy elderly, hypertensive and heart failure patients. In addition, it has been speculated that CysC may be an early marker of ventricular remodelling, primarily involved in its pathogenesis, as a local antiprotease. Its role in physiopathology and clinical issues of cardiovascular pathology is yet to be elucidated (AU)

[Cystatin C: a protein for heart failure]. / La cistatina C: una proteína para la insuficiencia cardíaca.

Cystatin C (CysC) is an antiprotease useful for measuring kidney function. Beyond such property, it carries significant prognostic information in several fields of cardiovascular diseases. We review data that support CysC as a prognostic factor in cardiovascular diseases among healthy elderly, hypertensive and heart failure patients. In addition, it has been speculated that CysC may be an early marker of ventricular remodelling, primarily involved in its pathogenesis, as a local antiprotease. Its role in physiopathology and clinical issues of cardiovascular pathology is yet to be elucidated.

Differential prognostic utility of NTproBNP and Cystatin C in patients with acute exacerbation of chronic pulmonary disease.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether serum Cystatin C (CysC) and NTproBNP have prognostic value among patients with long-standing chronic lung disease. DESIGN: Prospective, observational, non-interventional study. SETTING: CysC and NTproBNP are prognostic markers in several cardiac conditions. In addition, CysC acts as an antiprotease following Cathepsin activation, which has been involved in the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. PARTICIPANTS: Patients with a basal functional status of II-IV (NYHA), admitted for an acute exacerbation of chronic pulmonary diseases and no previous history of symptoms related to pulmonary hypertension or heart failure. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: NTproBNP and CysC were determined at admission in 107 patients with acute exacerbation of chronic lung disease. During 12-month follow-up, mortality, new hospital admissions and prescription of diuretics were recorded. RESULTS: During follow-up there were eight patient deaths (7.5%). Mean NTproBNP among the deceased was 1510.20 pg/mL (95% CI 498.44-4628.55) vs 502.70 pg/mL (95% CI 395.44-645.48) among survivors (p = 0.01). Twenty-seven patients (25%) were prescribed loop diuretics. Mean concentration of CysC was 1.45 mg/dL (95% CI 1.21-1.69 mg/dL) vs 1.17 mg/dL (95% IC 1.09-1.25 mg/dL) in those not prescribed (p = 0.004). NTproBNP concentration was 837.14 pg/mL (95% CI 555.57-1274.10 pg/mL) in patients prescribed diuretics vs 473.42 pg/mL (95% CI 357.80-632.70 pg/mL) in those not prescribed (p = 0.03). Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed a significant difference between death and diuretic prescription during follow-up when cut-off value for NTproBNP was 550 pg/mL (p = 0.03 and p = 0.02, respectively). For 1.16mg/dL of CsysC, a significant difference was only observed in diuretic prescription (p = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS: In patients with chronic respiratory diseases NTproBNP has predictive value in terms of mortality whereas CysC does not. However, it is still possible that both can contribute to the early identification of patients at risk of developing clinical ventricular dysfunction.

Síndrome de Wallenberg y consumo de cannabis / Wallenberg syndrome and cannabis consumption

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Alternativas terapéuticas para la insuficiencia cardíaca en los ancianos: [revisión] / Therapeutic alternatives for treating heart failure in elderly patients: [review]

La insuficiencia cardíaca (IC) es una importante causa de mortalidad en todo el mundo y el principal motivo de hospitalización de origen no quirúrgico en muchos países. Existe un gran número de variables predictivas acerca del pronóstico de pacientes con IC, una de ellas es la edad. Además, la comorbilidad por causa no cardíaca dificulta el tratamiento en un importante grupo de pacientes ancianos con IC y casi la mitad de los pacientes con síntomas de IC presenta una fracción de eyección del ventrículo izquierdo conservada. Sin embargo, los ensayos clínicos en IC no se han centrado ni en el grupo de pacientes ancianos ni en aquellos con fracción de eyección conservada. Por esta razón no se han establecido recomendaciones específicas para este grupo. Este artículo revisará los estudios más importantes sobre IC realizados en los últimos años y analizará los resultados en pacientes de edad igual o superior a 65 años. Esta revisión incluye los betabloqueantes, inhibidores de la enzima convertidora de angiotensina, antagonistas del receptor de la angiotensina, antagonistas de los receptores de la aldosterona, nitratos más hidralazina, digoxina, estatinas, el desfibrilador automático implantable y la resincronización cardíaca.

Alternativas terapéuticas para la insuficiencia cardíaca en los ancianos: [revisión] / Therapeutic alternatives for treating heart failure in elderly patients: [review]

La insuficiencia cardíaca (IC) es una importante causa de mortalidad en todo el mundo y el principal motivo de hospitalización de origen no quirúrgico en muchos países. Existe un gran número de variables predictivas acerca del pronóstico de pacientes con IC, una de ellas es la edad. Además, la comorbilidad por causa no cardíaca dificulta el tratamiento en un importante grupo de pacientes ancianos con IC y casi la mitad de los pacientes con síntomas de IC presenta una fracción de eyección del ventrículo izquierdo conservada. Sin embargo, los ensayos clínicos en IC no se han centrado ni en el grupo de pacientes ancianos ni en aquellos con fracción de eyección conservada. Por esta razón no se han establecido recomendaciones específicas para este grupo. Este artículo revisará los estudios más importantes sobre IC realizados en los últimos años y analizará los resultados en pacientes de edad igual o superior a 65 años. Esta revisión incluye los betabloqueantes, inhibidores de la enzima convertidora de angiotensina, antagonistas del receptor de la angiotensina, antagonistas de los receptores de la aldosterona, nitratos más hidralazina, digoxina, estatinas, el desfibrilador automático implantable y la resincronización cardíaca.(AU)